ODea J.A., Dibley M.J., Rankin N.M. Low sleep and low socioeconomic status predict high body mass index: A 4-year longitudinal study of A ustralian schoolchildren. Experimental studies applying sleep restriction protocols demonstrated the worsening of several neurocognitive functions, such as memory, attention, and executive functions, as a consequence of sleep loss [72,73,74]. Epub 2015 Jul 16. Effects of school start times and technology use on teenagers sleep: 19992008. Prevalence of motor vehicle crashes involving drowsy drivers, United States, 19992008. Borlase B.J., Gander P.H., Gibson R.H. Circadian Misalignment Impacts the Association of Visceral Adiposity With Elevated Blood Pressure in Adolescents. Many teenagers go to bed and wake up significantly later than younger children, a developmental progression thought to reflect adolescent psychosocial processes. The long-term night-time exposure to bright light in adolescence leads to inhibition of melatonin secretion and to a consequent delay in falling asleep [35]. 2004 Jun;1021:276-91. doi: 10.1196/annals.1308.032. Partial sleep deprivation results from the tendency of adolescents to delay their sleeping and waking times. Epidemiologic studies conducted in Europe, Asia, and the United States in the teenage years suggest inadequate sleep in many adolescents (from 6% to 37%) [40], which is reflected in difficulties at the beginning of sleep, through the night, and towards the end of night sleep [41,42,43]. Baum K.T., Desai A., Field J., Miller L.E., Rausch J., Beebe D.W. Sleep restriction worsens mood and emotion regulation in adolescents. Early school start time generates an evident mismatch with the natural phase shift in adolescence, leading to chronic sleep restriction. Changing times: Findings from the first longitudinal study of later high school start times. C) school should begin later in the morning. The second one includes studies comparing the data collected before and after the application of later school programs on the same student group. Several studies described a positive relationship between inadequate sleep and engagement in risk-taking behavior in adolescents, especially with regards to substance abuse [84]. The effect of daily start times on academic performance. Gorgoni M., DAtri A., Scarpelli S., Reda F., De Gennaro L. Sleep electroencephalography and brain maturation: Developmental trajectories and the relation with cognitive functioning. These programs have been implemented with the express purpose of reducing the negative impact of early school times on student well-being and performance by improving the sleepwake schedule. B) school should be held year-round. Delaying school start times can be a possible method to minimize the difficulty of staying awake during lessons by reducing the levels of daytime sleepiness. Is 8:30 a.m. still too early to start school? Validity of the morningness-eveningness scale for children among Spanish adolescents. Koscec A, Radosevic-Vidacek B, Bakotic M. Chronobiol Int. Joe's moods are most likely linked to his daily activities, Over the past century, the onset of puberty has been coming at an earlier age. Knutson K.L., Lauderdale D.S. Poor sleep in adolescents is also positively associated with other somatic outcomes, such as headache [58], persistent fatigue [59], and lower back, neck, and abdominal pain [60]. B. school should be held year- round. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Coherently with these findings, the circadian chronotype shifts from morningness (up to 10 years of age) to eveningness in adolescence, and then return towards morning chronotype in advanced age (after 50 years of age) [13,14,15]. Furthermore, sleep loss in adolescents is likely to lead to increases in blood pressure [55,56] and high cardiometabolic risk [57]. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in examining the relationship between sleep patterns and school performance in adolescents. Cain N., Gradisar M. Electronic media use and sleep in school-aged children and adolescents: A review. Microcomputer analyses of performance on a portable, simple visual RT task during sustained operations. In other words, the longer the delay is, the greater is the lengthening of total sleep time (TST). Research suggests that sleep plays an important role in the development, progression, and maintenance of mood disorder symptoms among children and adolescents. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Pulm. Such functional modifications in the oscillatory physiology are probably linked to structural changes in the adolescent brain. More specifically, we intend to give some helpful insights and suggestions for planning future studies and for implementing an acceptable school schedule change. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Furthermore, empirical evidence points to a positive association between later school start times and reduction of vehicular accident rates (by 16.5%) [120,126,127,128], potentially by improving vigilance. Russo P.M., Biasi V., Cipolli C., Mallia L., Caponera E. Sleep habits, circadian preference, and school performance in early adolescents. These data support involvement of a biological factor in the adolescent phase preference delay and indicate that our current understanding of adolescent sleep patterns may need revision. 2003-2023 Chegg Inc. All rights reserved. In this respect, it is worth pointing out that the study by Chan and colleagues [113] found positive effects following the shortest delay intervention applied (15 min), which could be considered a plausible compromise. Validity of the Morningness-Eveningness Scale for Children among Spanish adolescents. Joe is extremely moody. Their observational study demonstrated a transient increase in sleep duration with a reduction of the initial effect over time parallel to a delayed circadian cycle. Another main problem related to sleepiness is the tendency to fall asleep and napping during school hours, with an obvious negative impact on academic success. Campbell I.G., Higgins L.M., Trinidad J.M., Richardson P., Feinberg I. High school start times and the impact on high school students: What we know, and what we hope to learn. The available literature on melatonin release in children and adolescents is scarce and inconsistent. Rimes K.A., Goodman R., Hotopf M., Wessely S., Meltzer H., Chalder T. Incidence, prognosis, and risk factors for fatigue and chronic fatigue syndrome in adolescents: A prospective community study. However, the modulatory effect of individual and environmental factors could explain some negative findings [76,81,82]. Associations among sleep, chronotype, parental monitoring, and pubertal development among German adolescents. National Library of Medicine Adolescence AND Sleep AND Circadian process OR Homeostatic process (432 articles); Adolescence AND Sleep deprivation (80 articles); Adolescence AND Sleep OR Sleepiness AND School timing (170 articles); Adolescence AND Health OR Academic performance AND School Timing (236 articles). These anatomical modifications could also be associated with the rise of peak spectral frequency of sleep spindles during adolescence [30], as a marker of cortical myelination [31]. The authors showed sustained gains on sleep duration, daytime alertness, and mental well-being. Almost all studies to date varied in their sample size and composition, ages of participants, and experimental design. Sleep. 2023 Jul 12. doi: 10.1038/s41390-023-02703-1. Along with the methodological limitations described above, this kind of study presents an array of complications related to the implementation costs of changing school start times. This delay in falling asleep causes difficulty in waking up at the desired time. In particular, females shift toward eveningness earlier than males (17 vs. 21 years of age) [15], consistently with their early onset of pubertal development. D. school should begin earlier in the morning. Sleep duration, positive attitude toward life, and academic achievement: The role of daytime tiredness, behavioral persistence, and school start times. Lytle L.A., Pasch K.E., Farbakhsh K. The relationship between sleep and weight in a sample of adolescents. Touitou Y., Touitou D., Reinberg A. Disruption of adolescents circadian clock: The vicious circle of media use, exposure to light at night, sleep loss and risk behaviors. Marcus C., Carroll J.L., Donnelly D.F., Loughlin G.M., Carroll L. Sleep in Children: Developmental Changes in Sleep Patterns. Insufficient sleep in adolescents represents a major public health issue [98]. The American Academy of Pediatrics has recommended that middle and high schools should begin no earlier than 8:30 a.m. to adequately satisfy the sleep needs of students. The reversal of preference as T increases is predicted by several recent models for choice between various amounts and delays of reward. The delayed phase preference suggests that: school should begin later in the morning. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal The cost assumption is strictly dependent on the specific characteristics of the district (e.g., rural or urban), and it is mainly related to both potential overlap with elementary or middle school bus systems and eventual increase of traffic. Preliminary findings on the beneficial effects of delaying school start time (mostly focused on sleep-related outcomes) [100,101,102] were followed by subsequent studies described in this review, illustrating the secondary effects on performance and behavior. Studies exploring the consequences of delayed school start time in the academic context revealed no clear association between start times and school performance. Ferrara M., Curcio G., Fratello F., Moroni F., Marzano C., Pellicciari M.C., Gennaro L., De Gennaro L. The electroencephalographic substratum of the awakening. The effects of sleep extension and sleep hygiene advice on sleep and depressive symptoms in adolescents: A randomized controlled trial. The adolescents nightly sleep need is around 99.35 h for optimal health and functioning [36,37]. On the other hand, the increase of homeostatic sleep pressurereflected by the build-up of SWAexhibits a slower rise rate in mature adolescents than in prepubertal children [17]. Au C.T., Ho C.K.W., Wing Y.K., Lam H.S., Li A.M. [3]. A . Therefore, there is no clear association between school start times and bedtime, contrary to the simplistic hypothesis that students tend to delay falling asleep as a result of a clock time delay. Salti R., Galluzzi F., Bindi G., Perfetto F., Tarquini R., Halberg F., Cornelissen G. Nocturnal melatonin patterns in children. As an example, the recent study by Chan and colleagues [113] includes a control group with no adjustment in school start time. Excessive sleepiness during the day impairs their concentration and their capacity to learn. Another main problem related to sleepiness is the tendency to fall asleep and napping during school hours, with an obvious negative impact on academic success. Indeed, although delayed sleep onset is primarily related to intrinsic factors, it is possible to intervene on school schedule directly. In summary, we propose the following possible directions for further research in this field: Insufficient sleep among school-aged adolescents has become an alarming health issue. Respir. Indeed, a rigorous methodological quality review of the included literature was not undertaken, and, consequently, some of the cited studies are less rigorous and have more potential bias than others. Conroy D.A. Tarokh L., Carskadon M.A., Achermann P. Trait-like characteristics of the sleep EEG across adolescent development. PMC Carrell S.E., Maghakian T., West J.E. As from Zzzzs? Delaying middle school and high school start times promotes student health and performance: An American Academy of Sleep Medicine position statement. Association of sleep and academic performance. Delaying school times is also tied to secondary outcomes for teenage students. To determine whether biological processes may underlie a delay of phase preference in adolescents, 183 sixth-grade boys and 275 sixth-grade girls completed questionnaires for morningness/eveningness (M/E) and pubertal status. Given the strong relationship between sleep and physical and mental well-being, later start times studies also evaluated changes in health-related behavior. Meininger J.C., Gallagher M.R., Eissa M.A., Nguyen T.Q., Chan W. Sleep duration and its association with ambulatory blood pressure in a school-based, diverse sample of adolescents. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, Specifically, weight loss and reduced caffeine use were associated with the intervention. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Questions and Answers for Quiz 1: Biological Transitions. Gorgoni M., Ferrara M., DAtri A., Lauri G., Scarpelli S., Truglia I., De Gennaro L. EEG topography during sleep inertia upon awakening after a period of increased homeostatic sleep pressure. Lpez-Gil JF, Moreno-Galarraga L, Mesas AE, Gutirrez-Espinoza H, Lpez-Bueno R, Gaffin JM. The paradox of adolescent health in the United States is that: adolescence is one of the healthiest periods in the life span, but nearly 1 in 15 adolescents has at least one disabling chronic disease. Unlike previous works [103,104,105,106], systematic and meta-analytic analysis is beyond the scope of this review, and this entailed some basic limitations. Studies on delayed school times have largely examined the effects on students of elementary, middle, and high schools. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Carskadon M.A. School environment and birth order were also evaluated. Homeostatic sleep regulation in adolescents. In particular, the major impediment referred to circumstances requiring multi-tasking skills [75] frequently faced by young people. Boergers J., Gable C.J., Owens J.A. They showed for the first time a reduction of sleep duration (about 20 min) and an increase of daytime sleepiness associated with earlier school start times. Wheaton A.G., Perry G.S., Chapman D.P., Croft J.B. Self-reported sleep duration and weight-control strategies among US high school students. Studies investigating the effects of different sleepwake schedules on academic achievement showed that impaired sleep quality and quantity are associated with decreased learning ability and compromised daytime functioning. Hypertension. ; Supervision, L.D.G. Cassoff J., Knuper B., Michaelsen S., Gruber R. School-based sleep promotion programs: Effectiveness, feasibility and insights for future research. Would you like email updates of new search results? Li S., Arguelles L., Jiang F., Chen W., Jin X., Yan C., Tian Y., Hong X., Qian C., Zhang J., et al. Paksarian D., Rudolph K.E., He J.-P., Merikangas K.R. Tefft B.C. Sleep inertia affects several cognitive and sensory-motor abilities, and delaying school start time could interfere with the physiological performance impairment due to this phenomenon. B. The available literature does not provide a homogeneous methodological framework. . Delayed sleep-wake phase disorder (DSWPD) is a disorder in which a person's sleep is delayed by two or more hours beyond the socially acceptable or conventional bedtime. Adolescence is a critical period of biological and social changes characterized by dramatic transformations in cognitive, behavioral, and emotional functioning. This research received no external funding. We considered the available studies up to December 2019. Clin. More specifically, we focus on the following issues: rele- as a result) involves several cognitive correlates that may harm the vant features of the sleep- wake cycle; how the circadian typology academic performance of adolescent students. In their longitudinal studies, Wahlstrom and colleagues [107,120] found better academic performance in the later start times group, in agreement with other works [121,122,123]. Fredriksen K., Rhodes J., Reddy R., Way N. Sleepless in Chicago: Tracking the effects of adolescent sleep loss during the middle school years. Otherwise, most results indicated the absence of significant variations [74,107,110,111,116]. Calamaro C.J., Mason T.B.A., Ratcliffe S.J. Conceptualization, L.D.G., V.A., S.S.; WritingOriginal Draft Preparation, L.D.G., V.A., S.S.; WritingReview & Editing, L.D.G., V.A., S.S., A.D., G.S. Sleep schedules and daytime functioning in adolescents. Meijer A.M., van den Wittenboer G.L.H. The direct relation between adolescent moodiness and hormonal changes of puberty is extremely strong.C. Carskadon M.A., Vieira C., Acebo C. Association between Puberty and Delayed Phase Preference. Clearly, longitudinal studies have the advantage of showing the extent of change through within-subject comparisons. FOIA Child Psychol. Longitudinal sleep EEG trajectories indicate complex patterns of adolescent brain maturation. ); ti.1amorinu@irtad.arorua (A.D.), 2IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, 00179 Rome, Italy; ti.1amorinu@illepracs.aneres, 3Department of Education and Human Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 42121 Reggio Emilia, Italy; moc.aisselsidsos@allets.omocaig. However, since the main biological changes in homeostatic and circadian processes covary during puberty, the studies described in the current paper concern the adolescent population. The investigation of school start time effects on adolescent sleep, learning, and well-being has received much scientific effort during the past twenty years. Winsler A., Deutsch A., Vorona R.D., Payne P.A., Szklo-Coxe M. Sleepless in Fairfax: The Difference One More Hour of Sleep Can Make for Teen Hopelessness, Suicidal Ideation, and Substance Use. Mili J., Kvolik A., Ivkovi M., Babi ike A., Labak I., Beni M., Ilakovac V., Nit M., Zibar L., Heffer M. Are there differences in students school success, biorhythm, and daytime sleepiness depending on their school starting times? Accessibility Despite the recommendations, most adolescent students (about three quarters) report sleeping less than 8 h per night [39], and this amount increases as a function of school grade level. Roenneberg T., Kuehnle T., Pramstaller P.P., Ricken J., Havel M., Guth A., Merrow M. A marker for the end of adolescence. Shochat T., Cohen-Zion M., Tzischinsky O. Functional consequences of inadequate sleep in adolescents: A systematic review. Pasch K.E., Laska M.N., Lytle L.A., Moe S.G. Adolescent sleep, risk behaviors, and depressive symptoms: Are they linked? Auvinen J.P., Tammelin T.H., Taimela S.P., Zitting P.J., Jrvelin M.-R., Taanila A.M., Karppinen J.I. Later school start times for supporting the education, health, and well-being of high school students. Carskadon and colleagues [4] described this process with a model called The Perfect Storm, illustrating the detrimental and the cumulative effects of biological, psychological, and social factors on sleep. Most of the cases showed an increase of positive mood and affect [109,110,113] and a decrease in school absenteeism due to illness [123]. The .gov means its official. Roberts R.E., Duong H.T. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide, This PDF is available to Subscribers Only. Matricciani L., Olds T., Petkov J. Association of sleep duration with obesity among US high school students. Sleep hygiene education programs represent a possible countermeasure to address this issue, especially in East Asian societies, where academic success is a priority over sleep quality. No relationship between M/E and psychosocial factors was found. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the B D) adolescent growth spurt. Key Words: Puberty, Chronotype, Entrainment, Sleep deprivation Go to: Over the last two decades, our knowledge about the critical role of sleep in well-being and brain function of the adolescent population has notably increased. Excessive sleepiness in adolescents and young . Strauch I., Meier B. Owens J.A., Belon K., Moss P. Impact of delaying school start time on adolescent sleep, mood, and behavior. This behavior is known as the phase delay, and is in conflict with the students' morning school schedules. The most explicit expression of sleep EEG modification is the reduction of EEG amplitude and power (up to 40%) across EEG frequencies [23,24]. When compared with their less mature peers, adolescents who are physically mature are: more likely to be involved in cross-sex activities such as going out on dates. J. . Minges K.E., Redeker N.S. Pathways to adolescent health sleep regulation and behavior. A significant relationship of pubertal status to M/E was found in girls, with a similar though nonsignificant trend in boys. The site is secure. Furthermore, the application of these protocols is challenging for several reasons, mainly linked to social and monetary costs of such policy change. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Overall, these results emphasize the potential relevance of phase-delaying effects of light stimulus in this population. Perkinson-Gloor N., Lemola S., Grob A. There is an increase in the production of certain hormones. Morgenthaler T.I., Hashmi S., Croft J.B., Dort L., Heald J.L., Mullington J. This phenomenon is traditionally described within the theoretical framework of the two-process model proposed by Borbly in 1982 [5], based on the reciprocal interaction between circadian and homeostatic processes of sleep regulation. Epub 2023 Mar 6. Ehrenkranz J.R., Tamarkin L., Comite F., Johnsonbaugh R.E., Bybee D.E., Loriaux D.L., Cutler G.B., Jr. Daily rhythm of plasma melatonin in normal and precocious puberty. However, the control school does not represent a valid comparison group because the two schools had no comparable school schedules at the beginning of the intervention with obvious limitations in interpreting their results. D) school should begin earlier in the . All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. This has been referred to as the. Daz-Morales JF, de Len MC, Sorroche MG. Chronobiol Int. The intersection between sleep science and policy: Introduction to the special issue on school start times. The nature of changes following the delayed school time program suggests that sleep debt during weeknights is reduced in the intervention group [109,110,116,117,118]. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (. Please check for further notifications by email. Estimating adolescent sleep need using dose-response modeling. Shinomiya S., Nagata K., Takahashi K., Masumura T. Development of sleep spindles in young children and adolescents. Overview What is delayed sleep-wake phase disorder (DSWPD)?
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